History has been less than kind to Richard who had for many years been a loyal supporter of his brother Edward. What caused him to seek the throne for himself we shall never know, but Lord Stanley’s treachery finally ended his brief reign.
Richard began his bid for the throne when he lodged the young King Edward in the Tower which was at the time, a royal residence as well as a fortress “for his safety” and the business of the realm continued with royal writs now being issued under the seal of Edward V and countersigned by Richard with his motto “Loyeaulte me lie”, until suddenly stopping on the 8th of June. On the 16th June, postponement of the coronation, scheduled for 22nd June was announced and a new date set for the 9th November.
A number of events now occurred that seems to have changed Richard. He discovered that Lord Hastings and John Morton the Bishop of Ely had been plotting with the Dowager Queen to challenge his authority to act as Edward’s Regent, a situation made worse when Robert Stillington, the Bishop of Bath and Wells, made a startling revelation in a council meeting (at which Richard was not present) to the effect that Edward V was illegitimate and could not, therefore, be a lawful king. It is likely that Hastings and Morton, seeing Richard’s hand in this announcement, joined the queen’s faction to stop Richard taking the throne. Richard did write to the city of York, requesting that troops be sent to him “to assist us against the queen, her bloody adherents and affinity” and London‘s streets were soon full of armed men in Gloucester’s livery. Stillington maintained that Edward IV had a marriage precontract with Eleanour Butler; such a precontract would mean that his subsequent marriage to Elisabeth Woodville was invalid and that any offspring thereof would be illegitimate. This gave Richard clear line of sight to the throne. How much of this had been orchestrated by him we can never know, but within a short time he had the other remaining son of Edward IV, the young Richard of York, removed from sanctuary and lodged with the young king in the Tower “to keep him company”. This request being backed up by troops surrounding his Westminster retreat.
Much has been written regarding Stillington’s allegations and it has long been assumed that they were merely devices to clear Richard’s path to the throne, but it should be remembered that, if true, under medieval law, Richard was the lawful heir to the crown. Henry Tudor’s attempts later to suppress the laws and judgments on the subject, largely to help legitimize his own marriage to the prince’s sister Elizabeth, resulted in chroniclers largely ignoring these important events or attempting garbled versions of the facts.
The ever suspicious Richard was determined to destroy any of the old king’s adherents and looked for treason in all men. He settled on Hastings, the Chamberlain, John Morton, the Bishop of Ely and Thomas Rotheram. It was reported to Richard that these three frequently foregathered in each others houses and he became convinced that they were plotting against him, which was true. He arranged an elaborate plan whereby the three were instructed to attend a council meeting in the Tower and once admitted, Richard declared that there was a plot afoot to kill him and called in soldiers who he had kept in waiting nearby. Richard accused them of treason and also accused Elisabeth Woodville of witchcraft, stating that he had been cursed by her and was unable to sleep, eat or drink. He bared his withered arm and accused her of causing the infirmity. All three were arrested and Hastings was taken outside and executed.
These events caused much concern among the moderate nobles of the council. If Hastings could be so treated, so could they. There had been no semblance of a trial; Hastings was killed on the express order of Richard in direct denial of his rights under Magna Carta. There are some who would argue that Hastings was arrested on the 13th June, tried and executed on the 18th of June, but no proof now exists for this position. The populace too was restless with many believing that Richard was intent on usurping the crown.
Richard however, while still publicly proclaiming that he was merely righting old wrongs and protecting his young charge, while gradually removed all attendants who had waited on the king and withdrawing him and his brother into the inner apartments of the Tower, being seen less and less frequently until at length, ceasing to appear at all. The last of the king’s old attendants, a Dr Argentin, reported that the lad was aware of his probable fate and, like a victim prepared for sacrifice, sought remission of his sins by daily confession and penance. Prince Edward and his brother were left to the care of Richard’s man William Slaughter.
Richard held a series of secret meetings with a Ralph Shaa, half brother to London’s Mayor and a noted theologian with a large following, during which he is said to have made clear his claims of his brother’s bigamy and the young king’s illegitimacy. Shaa duly preached a sermon at St Paul’s in the presence of Richard “with a great guard of armed men”. Shaa preached of Richard’s mother, Duchess Cecily’s adultery and naming Edward IV as a bastard. He urged the congregation to name Richard the true king. The ripples of the sermon spread throughout the land and caused much unrest, many ordinary folk feared for the lives of the young princes. Rumblings of rebellion were heard in the south and west of the country as well as London. In the north where Richard had most of his support, he reinforced it with bribes and rewards, buying loyalty and arresting opponents. On June 22nd 1483, Richard declared that he was taking the throne and on July 6th, was crowned at Westminster Abbey. It is said that, with the exception of three young Earls not old enough to attend, every peer of the realm was there, saying much for the power Richard now wielded.
Shortly after his coronation, he toured his old power base in the north, receiving a warm welcome in York and traveled on to see his son Edward invested as Prince of Wales. Richard was far from safe in his new position however, the unrest in the country among the supporters of Edward V, plus threats of invasion from the exiled Henry Tudor who claimed the throne through his ancestor John of Gaunt, plus the threat posed by supporters of the Dowager Queen and her daughters, caused him to lose trust in those who had helped him to his new position. Attempts were made by his enemies to rescue the queen and her daughters from their sanctuary, hoping that, should the worse happen and the young princes be killed, the daughters might provide at some future time, a king of Edward IVs line. Anticipating this, Richard had the sanctuary surrounded by the austere John Nesfield and his men, allowing no entry or exit without permission of the new king.
Events were now getting out of hand, throughout the south of England people were rising in protest at Richard’s perceived favoring of the north at their expense, plus growing public concern at the disappearance of the princes. Richard would never be safe on his throne while the youngsters lived. Accordingly, it is said, he ordered Sir James Tyrell to visit Brackenbury, the Constable of the Tower, with a letter from Richard demanding that the Tower keys be handed over for one night. This accomplished, Tyrell appointed two henchmen, John Dighton and Miles Forest, to the task of murdering the princes. Creeping into their room in the night and smothering them to death with pillows. This done, they summoned Sir James to see the bodies before burying them at a stair foot deep under the Tower.
Rumour and unrest was rife and letters were sent to the exiled Earl of Richmond, Henry Tudor, to invade, assuring him of support in driving Richard from the throne, Richard’s long time friend Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, who had done so much to aid Richard in his elevation, now chose this time to change coats and join the rebels. He urged Henry Tudor to hasten to England and suggested marriage to Elisabeth, the eldest daughter of the late king, and together with her, take possession of the English throne. Buckingham promised armed support for Henry and began raising troops. Richard, through his many spies, got wind of the plotting and stationed loyal troops at strategic points in the West Country and on the Welsh borders to forestall any invasion plans. Bad weather in the channel forced Henry and his forces back to Brittanny. Without the promised invasion, Buckingham’s support faded away. Buckingham was named a traitor and was now a hunted man. He exchanged his lavish clothes for peasant’s rags and sought refuge in the lowly house of his servant Ralph Bannaster of Wem. Bannaster however, betrayed Buckingham who was taken to Salisbury and beheaded in the market square on 2nd November 1483.
Richard with a large army moved on westward determined to destroy any armed opposition and by the time he had reached Exeter, the rebel leaders had fled. Richard with his usual cunning confiscated the estates of the rebels and redistributed them among his northern supporters to the great chagrin of the south. Richard, with his cronies Lovell, Ratcliffe and Catesby now ruled with little reference to parliament, thus causing a seditious rhyme to circulate, a copy of which was found fastened to the Cross in Cheap side, reading, “The Cat, the Rat and Lovell our dog, now rule all England under a Hog”, a white boar being the motif on Richard’s personal livery. Two Londoners, Collingwood and Turbeville were arrested for this and imprisoned. At the subsequent trial, Collingwood was found guilty and sentenced to be hanged, drawn and his bowels cast into the fire. This was so swiftly and expertly done that it is said that. When the butcher pulled out his heart he spoke and said “Jesus, Jesus”.
At Christmas 1484, Richard learned from his spies overseas that Henry Tudor was preparing another invasion. The news pleased Richard for he realized that this could be the opportunity to rid himself at last of this final opposition. To fight however, he would need money and accordingly resurrected King Edward’s practice of “benevolences” whereby he sent collectors throughout the country, examining the accounts of all and extracting taxes there from. This move further alienated him from the populace.
Following the death of his wife, he had began to pay much attention to his brother’s eldest daughter, Elisabeth of York and rumors spread that he was to marry her and thus add more legitimacy to his claim to the crown. At this suggestion, even his closest confidantes Catesby and Ratcliffe were appalled. They made it clear that any such arrangement would alienate his support in the north and that even the Pope would refuse to condone a marriage of such close sanguinity. There was a measure of self interest in their protests as, should Elisabeth become queen, she could exact great revenge on those who had assisted in the reputed murder of her brothers. Their argument prevailed and in August, in the great Hall of St John’s hospital, Richard denied that marriage had ever crossed his mind and threatening anyone repeating the allegation with imprisonment.
On the 7th August 1485, Henry Tudor landed at Milford Haven in Pembrokeshire with a small force. His Tudor heritage earned him some support in Wales and his force grew as he moved east. On hearing this, Richard was said to have rejoiced, writing to his supporters in every quarter that the hour of reckoning had come and he could finally rid himself of the last claimant to the throne and rule thereafter in tranquility. He sent out further letters demanding that all men of rank must now support him and that any man found not to have done so after the battle would lose not only his life, but his estates and titles too.
Richard’s mistrust of those around him can be clearly seen when his seneschal, Lord Thomas Stanley, requested permission to return to his estates in Lancashire. Richard agreed, but insisted that Stanley’s son, Lord Strange remained with the king as a hostage to ensure loyalty. Richard must have been all too aware of the conflicting loyalties facing Thomas Stanley, who had married Henry Tudor’s widowed mother, Margaret Beaufort. Could Margaret persuade him to change sides and support the invasion? Richard did not want to risk this and sent orders for Lord Stanley to meet him at Nottingham. Lord Stanley wrote to the king, begging to be excused and claiming that he had sweating sickness. Further, Lord Stanley’s brother William was Lord Chamberlain of North Wales and in sole command of forces that might counter any advance by Henry Tudor. Richard realized the danger in the situation and, learning that the young Lord Strange had attempted to escape, had him questioned, revealing that the William Stanley and his henchman Sir John Savage had planned to join Henry Tudor all along, but that his father Thomas remained loyal. Richard forced Strange to write to his father, explaining his plight and urging him to join the king without delay. He had both nobles declared traitors and moved northwards gathering forces as he went.
Henry Tudor gathered forces as he neared Welshpool and more Welshmen joined at a muster outside the town. He felt sufficiently strong to demand the surrender of Shrewsbury which, after a few days resistance, capitulated. With Wales largely pro Tudor, Richard summoned his forces to meet at Leicester, but not all answered the call. An extract from a letter written by the Duke of Norfolk to a John Paston, head of a family of Norfolk gentry reads “Wherefore I pray you meet me at Bury St Edmunds and that you bring with you such company of tall men as you may goodly make at my cost and charge besides, that which you have promised the king , and I pray, you ordain them with jackets of my livery and I shall content you at your meeting with me”.There is no record of Paston having brought any men badged with Norfolk’s white lion to the muster, but it is known that he was created Sheriff of Norfolk some two months later under Henry Tudor’s rule, possibly a reward for his reticence?
Treachery was in the air and many nobles were choosing sides based on their reckoning of who would triumph in the forthcoming battle. Even those on their way to Leicester to join the king were not to be trusted with those such as Sir Thomas Bourchier and Sir Walter Hungerford slipping away at Stony Stratford to join the rebels.
Richard celebrated the Feast of the Assumption of Blessed Virgin Mary on August 15th, demonstrating his confidence at the time, but shortly afterwards learned of the mass defections in Wales, plus the surrender of Shrewsbury. By now he must have realized that he was not going to get the total support that he expected from the nobility. Norfolk continued raising troops but the Earl of Northumberland was proving less prompt, causing Richard to issue a summons for troops from York on 16th August.
Henry meanwhile, moved eastwards, keeping an escape route open into Wales. At Newport he was joined by Sir Gilbert Talbot, an important landowner, bringing with him 500 men. This was Henry’s first major English contingent and must have heartened him. It is known that William Stanley met up with Henry Tudor at Stafford where he explained that his brother Thomas could not declare for Henry until the last possible moment without condemning Lord Strange, his son, to death. Lord Stanley with his forces reached Litchfield on August 17th, then moved eastwards, retreating in front of Henry to give the impression that he was making for Richard’s muster at Leicester.
Richard left Nottingham on the 20th August and joined the muster at Leicester. His forces, reckoned by now to be between 10000 and 15000 strong and led by the Duke of Norfolk, and Earls of Northumberland, Surrey, Lincoln and Shrewsbury in what the Croyland Chronicle called “numbers greater than had ever seen before in England collected together on behalf of one person”, moved through Peckleton and Kirkby Mallory. On the 21st,At Sutton Cheney, learning through his scouts that Henry was nearing White Moors, he positioned his troops up on the commanding ground of Ambion Hill, west of Sutton Cheney and close to the village of Market Bosworth.
Henry meanwhile, had arrived at Litchfield on the 20th. His forces camped somewhere between Litchfield and Tamworth that night. Henry himself disappeared from the camp overnight, possibly to prepare his mind for the coming fight. The historian Polydor Vergil states that Henry merely got lost and spent the night incognito in a nearby town, rejoining his worried troops in the morning, excusing himself by saying that he had gone to meet certain influential friends and had received “some good news”.
Vergil goes on to state that Henry traveled to Atherstone on the 21st, to where William and Thomas Stanley were camped “taking one another by th’hand and yielding mutual salutation, each man was glad for the good state of th’others, and all their minds were moved to great joy”. Henry was further heartened when a number of Richard’s captains deserting the king, arrived with their troops to join the rebels.
Richard’s forces spent the night on Ambion Hill and, as the sun rose at 5.15 on the 22nd August 1485, he marshalled them and brought them down from the height to better array them for the battle. He disposed them in two divisions, the van ward being commanded by the Duke of Norfolk and Brackenbury, with the Earl of Northumberland in the rear. Archers were placed in front of Norfolk’s troops. Richard placed himself and his bodyguards behind Norfolk.
It must have been a daunting sight for Tudor’s men as they moved forward, seeing the might arrayed against them. Henry Tudor divided his force of 5000 in three divisions, the main centre under the experienced Earl of Oxford, plus two small flanking units under Sir John Savage on the left and Sir Gilbert Talbot on the right. An area of marshland protected his force on the right and He himself, with a small contingent of horsemen and some infantry, placed themselves some distance behind the main battle. The Stanleys meanwhile, had arrived with their force of 3000, but stood off some way to the south. Henry sent word to Lord Stanley to come and join the ranks, but Stanley replied that he would move once Henry’s forces were deployed, not a very reassuring answer at that moment!
There are a number of versions of the course of the battle, Molinet, a Burgundian historian states that Richard’s artillery engaged the front of the rebels, causing them to edge to the left exposing a gap between them and the marsh , while others talk of Richard’s hand gunners opening the battle. Vergil’s version seems the more likely. He states that Henry’s centre advanced and was met with a volley of arrows from Norfolk’s archers, causing the troops to bunch up and expose some ground between them and the marsh. This move also presented their backs to Stanley’s forces and if he were to aid Richard, now was the time. Norfolk’s troops also advanced and the two sides met with a great crash of arms. From Richard’s viewpoint he could see the gap and if he were to send his cavalry in, he could roll up Henry’s right wing in a pincer movement between them and Norfolk’s men. Richard however, had other ideas. Through the gap he could see the banners and standards of Henry and his entourage. If he could reach them and kill Henry his problems would be over. Without hesitation he charged forward, followed by his small band of retainers, aiming direct for Henry. So fierce was his assault that he tore through those surrounding Henry, slashing and cutting until he came to Henry’s standard bearer William Brandon, felling him with a blow. He next attacked a John Cheney, described as a man of great fortitude, who also fell beneath the king’s onslaught.
Behind Richard, his followers were fighting desperately against the foot soldiers who were trying to protect Henry. So fierce was the fighting that Richard’s own standard bearer, Sir Percival Thirlwell was beaten down and had both legs hacked off, but Richard’s small force came ever closer to where Henry Tudor stood. It was at this moment that the treacherous Stanley’s chose to intervene, streaming in from the south and striking the king’s forces on their left flank. Stanley had chosen his moment well. He knew that Richard would not forgive his failure to act earlier and also knew that Henry, now in deep trouble, would be suitably grateful for this timely intervention. Panic spread through Richard’s men and many turned and fled, suffering much slaughter in their flight. Many others surrendered, including Northumberland’s division which had taken no part in the battle, either because he had not had time to deploy or, as Vergil suggests, he was keeping his options open. The speed of the surrender accounts for the relatively small number of deaths during the battle. Vergil estimates that royalist losses were 1000, while Henry Tudor’s amounted to no more than 100, but Molinet suggests 300 deaths on either side.
Richard meanwhile, with his army disintegrating around him was now surrounded, many of his knights had been unhorsed and were fighting on foot, his followers urged Richard to escape but he replied “God forbid that I yield one step. This day I will die as a king or win”. With his horse bogged down in the marshy ground, Richard bravely struck at his enemies until at last he was pulled from his horse and hacked to death. While history has been cruel to Richard, there is no doubt of his bravery and fortitude when facing his death.
Virgil states that, following the battle, Henry “got himself to a near hill” where he commanded his troops to tend the wounded and bury the dead. He praised the nobility and gentlemen with his immortal thanks, promising that he “would be mindful of their benefits”. The troops replied with great shouts of “God save King Henry” and Lord Stanley placed the golden coronet, so recently on the helm of Richard, on Henry’s head.
Richard’s naked body was slung across a horse, with one of his heralds being forced to ride it and taken to Leicester and left on show for two days for all to see at the church of St Mary, following which he was buried without ceremony at Grey Friars near St Martin’s church.
Richard’s death ended the bloody dynastic War of the Roses and ushered in a new age. The uniting of York and Lancaster with Henry’s marriage to Elizabeth secured the throne for the Tudors and finally brought peace to England.
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